Latin Abbreviations in English Writing: et al., etc., i.e., e.g., ibid., and sic

Latin abbreviations in English writing show up more often than most writers realize. They appear in academic papers and citations, in business reports and memos, in legal documents and court captions, and in journalism and editorial prose. Six of them account for nearly all the confusion: et al., etc., i.e., e.g., ibid., and sic. The mistakes writers make with them are almost always the same handful: wrong punctuation, unnecessary italics, using etc. where et al. belongs, and using i.e. where e.g. belongs.

This article covers what each of these six actually means, when to use it, how to punctuate it, and how to avoid the most common mistakes. It includes two comparison tables for the two confusions writers get wrong most often (et al. vs. etc. and i.e. vs. e.g.), a section on how conventions differ across academic, business, legal, and journalism writing, and a FAQ with the questions that come up over and over in editing.

What Latin Abbreviations Do in English Writing

Most Latin abbreviations that survive in modern English writing entered the language through medieval and Renaissance scholarship, when Latin was the working language of universities and law. They persist today because each one packs a specific piece of meaning into two or three characters. Et al. saves a citation from listing eight author names. E.g. signals that examples follow. I.e. signals that a clarification follows. Etc. signals that a list continues. Ibid. saves a footnote from repeating a full source citation. Sic tells a reader that the writer is not the one who made the error inside a quotation.

The current American conventions for these abbreviations are simpler than older conventions suggest. Modern style guides, including APA 7, MLA 9, Chicago 17, and AP, treat them as ordinary English abbreviations. No italics. Standard periods. Comma before or after when the grammar of the sentence would call for a comma anyway. Older publications, British publications, and some legal styles still italicize them. That convention is fading in American academic and professional writing.

The Six Latin Abbreviations You'll Actually Encounter

Each of the six below gets the same treatment: what the Latin form is, what the abbreviation means, when to use it, how to punctuate it, and a realistic example. The examples are drawn from the kinds of writing an Editor World editor actually sees, not textbook cases.

Et al. (and others)

Et al. is short for et alii (masculine), et aliae (feminine), or et alia (neuter). All three mean "and others." It is used almost exclusively in citations, to stand in for a list of authors when a work has multiple contributors. APA 7 and MLA 9 use it for sources with three or more authors. Chicago uses it for sources with four or more authors in in-text citations. The period goes after "al." only, because "al" is the abbreviated part. "Et" is a full Latin word for "and" and never takes a period.

Common in the wild: Smith et al. (2023) found that the intervention produced significant improvement. Never write "et. al." with a period after "et." Never write "et al" without the period after "al." For the full rules across APA, MLA, and Chicago, including edge cases such as two sources shortening to the same form, see our article on how to use et al. in citations.

Etc. (and the rest)

Etc. is short for et cetera, meaning "and the rest" or "and so on." It continues a list of things or concepts when the writer does not want to list every item. It is the wrong abbreviation for people. If the list is people, use et al. or write "and colleagues" or "and others." The period goes after "c," and etc. is not italicized in modern American writing.

Common in the wild: The training covered onboarding topics: security protocols, benefits enrollment, IT setup, etc. Two common errors show up in editing. First, "and etc." is redundant because "et" already means "and." Just write "etc." Second, using etc. after e.g. is redundant because e.g. already signals that examples follow rather than a complete list.

I.e. (that is)

I.e. is short for id est, meaning "that is" or "in other words." It introduces a restatement, a clarification, or a definition of something the writer just mentioned. Whatever follows i.e. should be equivalent to what came before it, not an example of it. The abbreviation takes periods after both letters, and in American English it is typically followed by a comma before the clarification.

Common in the wild: The manuscript should be submitted in the required format, i.e., double-spaced with 12-point Times New Roman. The clarification here restates the format requirement in more specific terms. It is not an example of something else. That distinction is the key to choosing between i.e. and e.g.

E.g. (for example)

E.g. is short for exempli gratia, meaning "for the sake of example" or simply "for example." It introduces one or more examples of a broader category. Whatever follows e.g. is not exhaustive. It is a sample. The abbreviation takes periods after both letters, and in American English it is typically followed by a comma before the examples.

Common in the wild: Several Romance languages, e.g., Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese, share grammatical features with Latin. The examples here illustrate the category "Romance languages," but they do not exhaust it. French, Romanian, and Catalan also belong. When the list is complete, i.e. is the correct choice. When the list is a sample, e.g. is the correct choice.

Ibid. (in the same place)

Ibid. is short for ibidem, meaning "in the same place." It is used in footnotes and endnotes to refer to the source cited immediately before, so the writer does not have to repeat the full citation. It is common in Chicago-style footnotes, in legal citations (Bluebook and OSCOLA), and in some humanities monographs. APA does not use ibid. at all. Chicago 17 discourages ibid. in favor of a shortened citation that repeats the author's last name and a short title. Chicago 18 continues that recommendation.

Common in the wild: 1. Smith, Title of Work (Publisher, 2023), 45. 2. Ibid., 47. Note that ibid. is italicized in some legal styles but is not italicized in modern American humanities styles. If the writing is APA, cut ibid. entirely. If the writing is Chicago, consider whether a shortened citation would read better than the abbreviation.

Sic (thus, so)

Sic is technically not an abbreviation. It is a full Latin word meaning "thus" or "so." It appears in square brackets inside a quoted passage. The bracketed sic indicates that an error, unusual spelling, or unusual usage in the quotation is original to the source, not introduced by the person quoting it. The convention protects the writer from being accused of misquoting or of introducing the error themselves.

Common in the wild: The 1798 letter reads, "The company hath [sic] not yet received the shipment." Sic appears in brackets, not parentheses, and is italicized in some styles but not in others. Chicago 17 recommends italics. APA does not italicize it. MLA is flexible. When in doubt, follow the style guide of the target publication. Use sic sparingly. Overuse can read as pedantic or condescending toward the original writer.

Other Latin abbreviations you may encounter

A handful of other Latin abbreviations still appear in specialized contexts. Cf. is short for confer, meaning "compare," and appears in academic footnotes to point the reader toward a related source with a differing view. Vs. is short for versus, meaning "against," and appears in legal case names and sports and debate contexts. Viz. is short for videlicet, meaning "namely," and appears occasionally in older academic prose where a formal list follows. Et seq. is short for et sequentia, meaning "and the following," and appears in legal citations to indicate additional sections that follow the one cited. Et ux. is short for et uxor, meaning "and wife," and appears in older American property deeds and case captions. Each of these is more restricted than the six covered above.

Where People Get Confused: Two Comparison Tables

Two confusions come up more often in editing than any others: et al. vs. etc., and i.e. vs. e.g. The tables below cover the differences that actually matter when the writer is deciding which one to use.

Et al. vs. etc.

The quick rule: if the list is people, use et al. (or spell out the additional names). If the list is things, use etc. "The board members: Jane Smith, Robert Chen, etc." is wrong because the list is people. Write "The board members: Jane Smith, Robert Chen, and others" or, in a citation context, "Smith et al."

I.e. vs. e.g.

The quick rule: if you could replace the abbreviation with "in other words" and the sentence still works, i.e. is correct. If you could replace it with "for example" and the sentence still works, e.g. is correct. A memory trick that works for many writers: i.e. starts with "i" for "in other words," and e.g. starts with "e" for "example."

Common Mistakes with Latin Abbreviations

Certain mistakes come up across almost every manuscript that uses Latin abbreviations. The list below covers the ones that get flagged most often during professional editing.

Wrong period placement. The period goes on the abbreviated part. Et al. gets a period after "al." only. I.e. and e.g. get periods after both letters. Etc. gets a period after "c." Ibid. gets a period after "d." Sic gets no period because it is a full word, not an abbreviation. Writing "et. al.," "ie," "eg," "etc" without the period, or "ibid" without the period are all common misses.

Unnecessary italics. Modern American style guides do not italicize any of these abbreviations. Older publications, British style, and some legal styles still do. If the target publication follows a modern American style (APA 7, MLA 9, Chicago 17, AP), do not italicize.

Using etc. after e.g. The phrase "e.g., apples, oranges, etc." is redundant. E.g. already signals that examples follow rather than a complete list. The etc. adds nothing except an extra comma and a repeated meaning. Write "e.g., apples and oranges" instead.

Using "and etc." The "et" in etc. already means "and." Writing "and etc." says "and and the rest." Use "etc." on its own.

Using etc. for people. Etc. is for things and concepts. When the list is people, use et al. in citations or "and others," "and colleagues," or a spelled-out list in general prose. "The founders: Jane Smith, Robert Chen, etc." is a common error that reads as slightly disrespectful to the omitted names.

Using et al. for a two-author source. Both APA and MLA require both author names when a source has only two authors. Et al. is only appropriate for three or more authors in APA and MLA, and four or more in Chicago.

Confusing i.e. and e.g. This is the most common Latin-abbreviation error in professional editing. If the writer means "in other words," i.e. is correct. If the writer means "for example," e.g. is correct. When in doubt, spell out "that is" or "for example." The full English phrase is never wrong.

Using ibid. in APA writing. APA does not use ibid. Repeat the shortened citation instead. This error is most common in writers moving between Chicago and APA styles across projects.

Latin Abbreviations Across Writing Registers

The conventions above are consistent enough that most style guides broadly agree. But different writing registers use these abbreviations at different frequencies and treat some of them differently. What follows is a practical guide to when and how to use Latin abbreviations in the four registers where they come up most.

Academic writing

Academic writing uses all six of these abbreviations regularly. Et al. is nearly universal in in-text citations. E.g. and i.e. appear frequently in body prose. Etc. appears in some fields more than others. Ibid. appears in humanities footnotes but not in APA social science writing. Sic appears in any field where quotation is common. Academic style guides are typically strict about punctuation and italicization. Follow the specific style guide of the target journal or program. The Editor World article on how to use et al. in citations covers the citation-specific rules across APA, MLA, and Chicago.

Business writing

Business writing uses e.g., i.e., and etc. regularly, but many editors recommend spelling out "for example," "that is," and "and so on" in most business contexts. Latin abbreviations can read as either professional or pretentious depending on the audience. In client-facing documents, RFP responses, and formal proposals, the spelled-out English is often clearer. In internal memos, technical reports, and status updates, the abbreviations save space and read as normal professional register. When in doubt, ask whether the reader will process the abbreviation faster than the full phrase. If not, spell it out.

Legal writing

Legal writing preserves several Latin abbreviations that have faded from other registers. Ibid. remains common in footnote citations (Bluebook and OSCOLA). Et seq. appears in citations to indicate additional statutory sections that follow the one cited. Cf. appears in briefs and law review articles to point the reader toward a related but distinct authority. Et ux. still appears in older American property deeds and case captions, though modern practice increasingly names both spouses in full. Some legal styles italicize Latin abbreviations that other styles do not. When writing for a specific jurisdiction or publication, follow that jurisdiction's citation manual.

Journalism and editorial writing

Journalism uses Latin abbreviations sparingly. AP style permits e.g., i.e., and etc. in some contexts but recommends spelling out the meaning in most cases because the abbreviations can slow the reader in a fast-paced editorial context. Et al. rarely appears in general newspaper or magazine writing outside book reviews and academic-adjacent pieces. Sic appears when a direct quotation contains an error the writer wants to preserve as evidence. Journalists writing for academic-adjacent publications (research magazines, science journalism, policy publications) should follow that publication's specific style guide.

How Editor World Supports Precise English Writing

Editor World provides professional editing for academic manuscripts, business documents, legal documents, journal articles, and general professional writing. Every edit reviews Latin abbreviation usage alongside grammar, clarity, register, punctuation, and style-guide compliance. Every editor is a native English speaker from the United States, the United Kingdom, or Canada. No AI tools are used at any stage. Editors are matched to your document by discipline and can apply APA, MLA, Chicago, AP, or any other style guide you specify.

For citation-specific editing on academic manuscripts, see our academic editing service. For journal manuscript editing, see our journal article editing service. For business documents, proposals, and RFP responses, see our business document editing service. For essay-level editing on shorter academic work, see our essay editing service. For a detailed walkthrough of et al. specifically across APA, MLA, and Chicago citation rules, see our article on how to use et al. in citations. Browse our editors at editorworld.com/editors and message any editor directly before submitting to discuss the specific style requirements of your document.

Frequently Asked Questions

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